Connecting the Ecological Footprint, Economic Growth, Population Density, and Water Productivity in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan

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Published: Dec 13, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.56476/jed.v50i2.81
Keywords:
Ecological Footprint, Environmental Degradation, Economic Growth, GDP per Capita, Sustainable Development, Population Density, Water Productivity, Resource Management, CCEMG (Common Correlated Effects Mean Group), PCSE (Panel-Corrected Standard Errors), System of Linear Equations, Long-Run Environmental Modeling, Cross-Country Panel Analysis, South Asia, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), Environmental Pressure Indicators, Green Growth and Resource Efficiency

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Mahmuda Sultana
Department of Economics, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6959-3281
Munshi Naser Ibne Afzal
Department of Economics, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6351-4856
Nahiun Nawar Torsa
Department of Economics, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5127-8573

Abstract

This study investigates the relationship between ecological footprint, GDP per capita, population density, and water productivity in three South Asian countries—Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan—over the period 1990 to 2022. Using a system of linear equations, the analysis incorporates the Common Correlated Effect Mean Group (CCEMG) model and Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (PCSE) to capture long-run dynamics among the variables. The results indicate that ecological footprints exert a positive and statistically significant effect on environmental outcomes, suggesting that environmental pressures intensify over time. In contrast, GDP per capita is found to reduce environmental degradation in the long run, providing evidence of a potential turning point consistent with the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis. Water productivity emerges as an important determinant of ecological outcomes, underscoring the role of efficient resource management in reducing environmental stress. Overall, the findings enhance understanding of the interactions between economic, demographic, and environmental factors in South Asia and offer policy insights for mitigating ecological impacts while advancing sustainable development goals.

Article Details

How to Cite
Sultana, Mahmuda, Munshi Naser Ibne Afzal, and Nahiun Nawar Torsa. 2025. “Connecting the Ecological Footprint, Economic Growth, Population Density, and Water Productivity in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan”. Journal of Energy and Development 50 (2):233–247. https://doi.org/10.56476/jed.v50i2.81.
Issue
Vol. 50 No. 2 (2025): Journal of Energy and Development
Section
Articles
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Author Biographies

Mahmuda Sultana, Department of Economics, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh

Mahmuda Sultana is a Professor in the Department of Economics at Shahjalal University of Science and Technology (SUST), Bangladesh, and a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Economics at Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka. She received her B.A. and M.A. in Economics from SUST and later earned an M.A. in Economics from the University of Manitoba, Canada. Her research interests include environmental and natural resource economics, development economics, labor economics, and energy economics. She has published in peer-reviewed journals such as The Journal of International Trade and Economic Development, Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, Financial Markets, Institutions and Risks, and Advances in Economics and Business.

Munshi Naser Ibne Afzal, Department of Economics, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh

Munshi Naser Ibne Afzal is an Associate Professor in the Department of Economics at SUST and adjunct faculty at HBMSU, Dubai. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of Southern Queensland, Australia, and completed a postdoctoral fellowship at Universiti Malaysia Sabah. His research focuses on policy issues including fiscal policy, energy policy, tourism and sustainability, and the knowledge and innovation economy. He has published more than 100 papers and is actively engaged in professional and volunteer activities both in Bangladesh and abroad.

Nahiun Nawar Torsa, Department of Economics, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh

Nahiun Nawar Torsa is pursuing a Master’s degree in Economics at Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh, where she also completed her undergraduate studies. She has worked as a research assistant under faculty supervision in her department. Her research interests include energy economics, sustainable development, behavioral economics, and applied econometrics, with particular emphasis on the relationships among energy consumption, economic growth, and agricultural growth dynamics.

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